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Judith L. Hand is an evolutionary biologist, animal behaviorist (ethologist), novelist, and pioneer in the emerging field of peace ethology. She writes on a variety of topics related to ethology, including the biological and evolutionary roots of war, gender differences in conflict resolution, empowering women, and abolishing war. Her lectures include recent developments in peace research, which may help us prevent war. Her book, ''Women, Power, and the Biology of Peace''〔2003 ''Women, Power, and the Biology of Peace''. San Diego, CA : Questpath Publishing.〕 is an in-depth exploration of human gender differences with regard to aggression. Her web site, ''A Future Without War'',〔''A Future Without War''. http://www.afww.org〕 a book by the same name,〔2006 ''A Future Without War: The Strategy of a Warfare Transition''. San Diego, CA : Questpath Publishing.〕 and a paper, ''To Abolish War''.〔2010 Hand, Judith L. "To Abolish War." ''Journal of Aggression, Conflict, and Peace Research'' 2(4): 44-56.〕 are devoted to the concept of and requirements for abolishing war. The website provides an extensive collection of essays and book reviews, issues a topical newsletter, includes a blog, and is a gateway to other related sites. Hand has been a member of the International Society for Human Ethology (ISHE), since its inception in 1972. ISHE is a professional organization whose members study human behavior and come from such diverse disciplines as biology, anthropology and psychology. The term "peace ethology" was coined by ethologist, Peter Verbeek, as a subdiscipline of human ethology, one that is concerned with issues of human conflict, conflict resolution, reconciliation, war, peacemaking, and peacekeeping behavior.〔2008 Verbeek, Peter. "Peace Ethology." ''Behaviour'' 145(11): 1497-1524.〕 Verbeek suggests that peace ethology is uniquely positioned to make an important contribution to the newly emerging science of peace.〔 Recent studies show that young children display peacemaking behavior that is remarkably similar in form and timing to peacemaking observed in non-human primates and other animals.〔 In the past, researchers assumed that peace emerges, almost by default, when violence or aggression ceases. Studies on the behavioral biology of aggression emphasized what led up to and happened during competition and aggression. Few studies investigated what happened afterwards.〔 In 1979, Frans de Waal and Marc van Roosmalen found that chimpanzee opponents tend to seek each other out for peaceful contact shortly after aggression has ceased. Three decades of studies indicate that peacemaking, like aggression, is a natural aspect of primate social behavior. Peace is now seen as a concept worthy of study in its own right.〔 Hand is a social activist committed to the abolition of war. Her argument for the ability of humans to achieve this goal is developed in ''Women, Power, and the Biology of Peace''〔 and her website.〔 Her argument rests on several controversial premises: 1) that while the roots of war do lie in aspects of male biology, war itself is not an inherited and therefore inescapable feature of human behavior, but instead is primarily the result of cultural factors; 2) that women are natural allies of nonviolent conflict resolution, and that excluding women from governing is an underlying condition that favors war because male inclinations for dominance using aggression go unchecked; 3) that to abolish war, a key requirement is the global empowerment of women (educational, financial, legal, political and religious). Other requirements for abolishing war and how long such a campaign might take are also explained on her website and in the paper, ''To Abolish War''.〔 ==Education and Research== From 1967 to 1975, Hand taught high school biology at Santa Monica High School in Santa Monica, CA. While still teaching, she began a Ph.D. program at UCLA and in 1979 was awarded a Ph.D. in Animal Behavior, also called Ethology (her subfields were Ornithology and Primatology). Her doctoral dissertation compared vocalizations of two populations of gulls (''Larus occidentalis''), and the results were used to reclassify the gull population in the Gulf of California as a separate species, (''Larus livens''), not just a subspecies of ''Larus occidentalis''. After completing her doctorate, she continued behavioral research as a Smithsonian Post-doctoral Fellow at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. (1979–1980). This research resulted in published papers on conflict resolution highlighting the use of egalitarian behavior to resolve conflicts. For example, mated gull pairs in conflict over nesting duties or access to choice food used such methods as sharing, first-come-first-served, and negotiation rather than the commonly studied dominance and subordination behavior to resolve conflicts.〔1985 "Egalitarian resolution of social conflicts: a study of pair-bonded gulls in nest duty and feeding contexts." ''Z. Tierpsychol.'' 70: 123-147.〕 Female gulls of the species she studied are always smaller than their mates. In her theoretical paper in the ''Quarterly Review of Biology'' (Vol. 61, 1986) she used a game theory approach to introduce the concept of “leverage” to explain why smaller individuals are sometimes able to establish an egalitarian relationship with much larger individuals, ones that could easily dominate them physically.〔1986 "Resolution of Social Conflicts: Dominance, Egalitarianism, Spheres of Dominance and Game Theory." ''Quart. Rev. Biol''. 61:201-220.〕 This paper also introduced the concept of “spheres of dominance” to explain why, in a given relationship between two individuals, the relative payoffs to survival or reproduction depends on the context of a conflict. Different contexts will provide different payoffs to each individual and consequently determine which individual of the pair will be dominant in a given context, instead of one individual being dominant over the other in all contexts. From 1980 to 1985, she was a Research Associate and Lecturer in the UCLA biology department teaching Animal Behavior and Ornithology. In 1987, she moved from Los Angeles to San Diego and spent several years writing fiction. In 2003, however, she returned to ethology and self-published ''Women, Power, and the Biology of Peace.'' The book draws from fields as diverse as evolutionary biology, primatology, behavior, ornithology, cultural anthropology, neurophysiology, and history. Hand has expanded concepts from ''Women, Power, and the Biology of Peace'' into essays on her website site, AFutureWithoutWar.org.〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Judith Hand」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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